Sunday, January 9, 2011

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Saudi Arabia

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
المملكة العربية السعودية
al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya
FlagEmblem
Motto"لا إله إلا الله محمد رسول الله"
There is no god but God: Muhammad is the Messenger of God" Shahada)[1]
Anthem"Aash Al Maleek"
"Long live the King"
Capital
(and largest city)
Riyadh
24°39′N 46°46′E
Official language(s)Arabic
Spoken languagesArabicEnglish
DemonymSaudi, Saudi Arabian
GovernmentIslamic absolute monarchy
 - KingAbdullah bin Abdul Aziz
 - Crown PrinceSultan bin Abdul Aziz
 - Second Deputy Prime MinisterNaif bin Abdul Aziz
LegislatureCouncil of Ministers
appointed by the king
Establishment
 - First Saudi Stateestablished1744 
 - Second Saudi Stateestablished1824 
 - Third Saudi StatedeclaredJanuary 8, 1926 
 - RecognizedMay 20, 1927 
 - Kingdom UnifiedSeptember 23, 1932 
Area
 - Total2,149,690 km2 (14th)
830,000 sq mi 
 - Water (%)0.7%
Population
 - 2010 estimate27,136,977[2] (41st)
 - Density12/km2 (205th)
31/sq mi
GDP (PPP)2010 estimate
 - Total$618.744 billion[3] 
 - Per capita$23,701.260[3] 
GDP (nominal)2010 estimate
 - Total$438.009 billion[3] 
 - Per capita$16,778.112[3] 
HDI (2010)increase0.752[4] (high) (55th)
CurrencySaudi Riyal (SR) (SAR)
Time zoneAST (UTC+3)
 - Summer (DST)(not observed) (UTC+3)
Drives on theRight
ISO 3166 codeSA
Internet TLD.saالسعودية.
Calling code00966
1Population estimate includes 8,429,401 non-nationals.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Arabicالمملكة العربية السعودية‎), commonly known as Saudi Arabia (Listeni /ˌsdi əˈrbiə/ or Listeni /ˌsɔːdi əˈrbiə/) is the largestArab country of the Middle East. It is bordered by Jordanand Iraq on the north and northeast, KuwaitQatar and the United Arab Emirates on the east, Oman on the southeast, and Yemen on the south. It is also Bahrainby bridge. The Persian Gulf lies to the northeast and theRed Sea to its west. It has an estimated population of 28 million, and its size is approximately 2,149,690 square kilometres (830,000 sq mi). The kingdom is sometimes called "The Land of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Mecca and Medina, the two holiest places in Islam. The two mosques are Masjid al-Haram (in Mecca) andMasjid Al-Nabawi (in Medina). The current kingdom was founded by Abdul-Aziz bin Saud, whose efforts began in 1902 when he captured the Al-Saud’s ancestral home ofRiyadh, and culminated in 1932 with the proclamation and recognition of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, though its national origins go back as far as 1744 with the establishment of the First Saudi State. Saudi Arabia's government takes the form of an Islamic absolute monarchyHuman rights groups such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have repeatedly expressed concern about the state of human rights in Saudi Arabia.
Saudi Arabia has the world's largest oil reserves and is the world's largest oil exporter. Oil accounts for more than 90% of exports and nearly 75% of government revenues, facilitating the creation of a welfare state,[5][6]which the government has found difficult to fund during periods of low oil prices. As of 2006, Saudi Arabia was the world's most generous donor nation per capita, donating £49 billion in aid in the previous three decades, but exclusively to Muslim countries (except for one donation amounting to the equivalent of £250,000).[7]

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[edit]History

Although the region in which the country stands today has an ancient history, the emergence of the Saudi dynasty began in central Arabia in 1744. That year, Muhammad ibn Saud, the ruler of the town of Ad-Dir'iyyah near Riyadh, joined forces with a well-known Islamic scholar and ImamMuhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab, to create a new political and religious entity. Both persons found they had common interests, mainly to see all the Arabs of the peninsula brought back to "true" Islam.[8] This alliance formed in the 18th century remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today, and over the next 150 years, the fortunes of the Saud family rose and fell several times as Saudi rulers contended withEgypt, the Ottoman Empire, and other Arabian families for control of the peninsula (see First Saudi State and Second Saudi State).[9] The third and current Saudi state was founded in the early 20th century by King Abdul Aziz Al Saud (known internationally as Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud).
First Saudi State (1744–1818)

[edit]First Saudi State (1744–1818)

The first Saudi State was established in 1744 whenMuhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab settled in Diriyah and Prince Muhammed Ibn Saud agreed to support and espouse his cause in the hope of cleansing Islamic practices of heresy. The House of Saud and its allies rose to become the dominant state in Arabia controlling most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia, including the Islamic holy cities of Mecca andMedina.[10] Concerned at the growing power of the Saudis, the Ottoman Sultan instructed Mohammed Ali Pasha to reconquer the area again. Ali sent his sonsTusun Pasha and Ibrahim Pasha who were successful in routing the Saudi forces in 1818, eventually weakening the hold of Al Saud. Alshuraim was one of the largest families that supported king Abdulaziz and his family.
Second Saudi State (1824–1891)

[edit]Second Saudi State (1824–1891)

After a rebuilding period following the ending of theFirst Saudi State, the House of Saud returned to power in the Second Saudi State in 1824. The state lasted until 1891 when it succumbed to the Al Rashid of Ha'il.

[edit]1891 to present day

Third Saudi State (present day) (Saudi Arabia)
Rashidi Arabia endured from 1891 to 1902, when Ibn Saud reconquered Riyadh, the first of a series of conquests leading to the creation of the modern nation state of Saudi Arabia in 1932. The Third Saudi state was founded by the late King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia. In 1902 Ibn Saud captured Riyadh, the Al-Saud dynasty's ancestral capital, from the rival Al-Rashid family. Continuing his conquests, Abdul Aziz subdued Al-Hasa, the rest of Nejd, and the Hejaz between 1913 and 1926. Boundaries with JordanIraq, and Kuwaitwere established by a series of treaties negotiated in the 1920s, with two "neutral zones" created, one with Iraq and the other with Kuwait. On January 8, 1926 Hussain Ibn Ali became the King of Sharqiya. On January 27, 1927 he took the title King of Nejd (his previous Nejdi title was Sultan). By the Treaty of Jeddah, signed on May 20, 1927, the United Kingdom recognized the independence of Abdul Aziz's realm (then known as the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd). In 1932, these regions were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The discovery of oil on March 3, 1938 transformed the country. The country's southern boundary with Yemen was partially defined by the 1934 Treaty of Taif, which ended a brief border war between the two states.
Abdul Aziz's military and political successes were not mirrored economically until vast reserves of oilwere discovered in March 1938. Development programs, which were delayed due to the onset of theSecond World War in 1939, began in earnest in 1946 and by 1949 production was in full swing. Oil has provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and a great deal of political leverage in the international community. Prior to his death in 1953, Abdul Aziz, aware of the difficulties facing other regional absolute rulers reliant on extended family networks, attempted to regulate the succession.
Saud succeeded to the throne on his father's death in 1953. However, by the early 1960s the Kingdom was in jeopardy due to Saud's economic mismanagement and failure to deal effectively with a regional challenge from Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser. As a consequence, Saud was deposed in favor of Faisal in 1964. Intra-family rivalry, echoed by increasing complications from the 1973 oil crisis, was one of the factors that led to the assassination of Faisal by his nephew, Prince Faisal bin Musa'id, in 1975. He was succeeded by King Khalid until 1982 and then by King Fahd. When Fahd died in 2005, his half-brother, Abdullah, ascended to the throne.

[edit]Government and Politics

[edit]The monarchy and the royal family

King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia
The central institution of the Saudi Arabian government is the Saudi monarchy. The Basic Law of Government adopted in 1992 declared that Saudi Arabia is a monarchy ruled by the sons and grandsons of the first king, Abd Al Aziz Al Saud. The leading members of the royal family choose the king from among themselves with the subsequent approval of religious leaders (the ulema). The Basic Law proclaims that the Qur'an is the constitution of the country, which is governed on the basis of the Sharia (Islamic Law). No political parties or national elections are permitted and according to The Economist's 2010 Democracy Index, the Saudi government is the seventh most authoritarian regime from among the 167 countries rated.[11] However, the king's powers are theoretically limited within the bounds of Shari'a and other Saudi traditions. He also must retain a consensus of the Saudi royal family, the ulema, and other important elements in Saudi society.
The royal family dominates government and politics in Saudi Arabia. The family’s vast numbers allow it to control most of the kingdom’s important posts and to have an involvement and presence at all levels of government.[12][13] Though some have put the family's numbers as high as 25,000,[14] most estimates place their numbers in the region of 7,000,[15] with most power and influence being wielded by the 200 or so male descendants of King Abd Al Aziz.[16]
Saudi kings have gradually developed a central government. Since 1953, the Council of Ministers, appointed by the king, has advised on the formulation of general policy and directed the activities of the growing bureaucracy. This council consists of a prime minister (who is usually the King), first and second deputy prime ministers (usually the first and second in line to the throne respectively) and, since 2005, 22 ministers with portfolio and seven ministers of state, two of whom have special responsibilities.[17][18][19] The key ministries are generally reserved for the royal family, as are most of the thirteen regional governorships. Long term political and government appointments, such as those of King Abdullah, who had been Commander of the National Guard since 1963 (until 2010, when he appointed his son to replace him), Crown Prince Sultan, Minister of Defence & Aviation since 1962,Prince Nayef who has been the Minister of Interior since 1975, Prince Saud who has been Minister of Foreign Affairs since 1975 and Prince Salman, who has been Governor of the Riyadh Region since 1962, have resulted in the creation of fiefdoms where senior princes have, it is reported, often co-mingled their personal wealth with that of their respective domains.[18][19][20][21][22]
King Abdullah, since his accession in 2005, has attempted to modernise and reform the Saudi government by making significant personnel changes in government (including making the first appointment of a woman to a ministerial post[23]) and seemingly adopting a more open approach.[24]This has, reportedly, been opposed by the Sudairi faction in the royal family.[25][26] However, the changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely cosmetic.[27] The question of reform remains a significant issue within the royal family and it is reported that it continues to play a major part in the internal politics of the succession.[26]
Legislation is by resolution of the Council of Ministers, ratified by royal decree, and must be compatible with the Shari'a. A 150-member Consultative Assembly, appointed by the King, has limited legislative rights. Access to high officials (usually at a majlis; a public audience) and the right to petition them directly are well-established traditions.[citation needed]

[edit]Corruption

Transparency International in its annual Corruption Perceptions Index for 2010 gave Saudi Arabia a score of 4.7 (on a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 is "highly corrupt" and 10 is "highly clean").[28] The government of Saudi Arabia and the Saudi royal family have been subject over many years to frequent allegations of extensive and systemic corruption originating, in part, from a lack of distinction between the personal interests and wealth of the royal family and that of the Saudi state.[29][21][30][22][31][32][33][34][35]
Asked about allegations of royal corruption in 2001, Prince Bandar bin Sultan, a senior member of the royal family and son of the Crown Prince said: "If you tell me that building this whole country ... out of $400bn, that we misused, or got, $50bn, I'll tell you, 'Yes. So what?'."[36]
The most widely reported example of Saudi royal family corruption relates to the Al-Yamamah arms deal. In 2003 and 2004, the British newspaper The Guardian and the BBC respectively claimed thatBAE Systems had engaged in the payment of bribes to members of the Saudi royal family in relation to its 'Al-Yamamah' contract.[37][38] These allegations ultimately led to separate investigations by the UK's Serious Fraud Office and the United States Department of Justice.[39][40] Although the UK investigation was halted following Saudi political pressure,[41][42][43] the US investigation resulted inBAE Systems being fined $400 million under a plea bargain arrangement in March 2010.[44]

[edit]The political role of the Ulema and the Al ash-Sheikh

The ulema, the clerical establishment, are led by the Al ash-Sheikh, who are the descendants ofMuhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab founder of the dominant Wahhabi form of Sunni Islam in Saudi Arabia. The alliance between the Al-Saud (the royal family) and the Al ash-Sheikh has existed since the First Saudi State and is based on a power-sharing understanding whereby the Al-Saud have political predominance but will support and propagate the Al ash-Sheikh's Wahhabism while the Al ash-Sheikh have predominance in religious matters but will support the Al-Saud's rule.[45][46][47]
Despite this long-standing balance of power, the ash-Sheikh family, and the Ulema as a whole, have in recent years exercised influence beyond purely religious matters and have had decisive involvement in key political decisions, for example the imposition of the oil embargo in 1973 or the invitation to foreign troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990[45]
The current leader of the Al ash-Sheikh is Abdul-Aziz ibn Abdullah Al ash-SheikhGrand Mufti of Saudi Arabia[48]

[edit]Politics and opposition to the regime

As noted above, there are no recognized political parties or national elections, except for one local election, which was held in 2005, when participation was reserved for male citizens only.[49]
Nevertheless, the extensive royal family is itself the main forum for politics in the country as it is divided by political factions and clan loyalties - the most prominent faction being the Al Fahd, previously known as the 'Sudairi Seven' (members of which include the late King Fahd and the currentCrown Prince).[50] It is reported that, with the current generation of senior princes of the royal family likely to die out in the next few years, there is on-going faction-fighting over the succession to the crown amongst the next generation of the family.[51][52]
Additionally, although the government of Saudi Arabia is based on the authoritarian rule of the monarch (and Saudi royal family) and party politics is not permitted, political opposition to that rule has arisen from four sources: Sunni Islamist activism; liberal pro-democracy critics; the Shiite minority - particularly in the Eastern Province; and long-standing tribal and regional particularist opponents (for example in the Hijaz).[53] Of these, the Islamist activists have been the most prominent threat to the regime and have in recent years perpetrated a number of violent or terrorist acts against the Saudi state.[54]

[edit]Support for Islamist terrorism in Saudi society

As noted above, Saudi Arabia is a source of Islamist terrorist activity, although this is not just internally to Saudi Arabia, but also world-wide. Osama bin Laden and 15 out of the 19 9/11 hijackers were Saudi nationals[55] and former CIA director James Woolsey described Saudi Arabian Wahhabismas "the soil in which Al-Qaeda and its sister terrorist organizations are flourishing."[56]
According to a 2009 U.S. State Department communication by Hilary ClintonUnited States Secretary of State, (disclosed as part of the Wikileaks U.S. 'cables leaks' controversy in 2010) "donors in Saudi Arabia constitute the most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide".[57] Part of this funding arises through the zakat (or religious tax) required to be paid by all Saudis to charities, and amounting to at least 2.5 percent of their income. Although many charities are genuine, others, it is alleged, serve as fronts for money laundering and terrorist financing operations. While many Saudis contribute to those charities in good faith believing their money goes toward good causes, it has been alleged that others know full well the terrorist purposes to which their money will be applied.[54][56]

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